Serving the Society Since 1986
Advanced Search
Volume 29 Issue 6
December 2014
    Citation: Lucy Zhu, Hua Zhu. Ocular herpes: the pathophysiology, management and treatment of herpetic eye diseases .VIROLOGICA SINICA, 2014, 29(6) : 327-342.  http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12250-014-3539-2
    shu

    Ocular herpes: the pathophysiology, management and treatment of herpetic eye diseases

    • Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry & Molecular Genetics Rutgers, Rutgers -New Jersey Medical School, New Jersey 07103, USA

    • Corresponding author: Hua Zhu, zhuhu@njms.rutgers.edu
    • Received Date: 06 November 2014
      Accepted Date: 13 November 2014
      Published Date: 15 December 2014
      Available online: 01 December 2014
    • Herpesviruses are a prominent cause of human viral disease, second only to the cold and influenza viruses. Most herpesvirus infections are mild or asymptomatic. However, when the virus invades the eye, a number of pathologies can develop and its associated sequelae have become a considerable source of ocular morbidity. The most common culprits of herpetic eye disease are the herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella zoster virus (VZV), and cytomegalovirus (CMV). While primary infection can produce ocular disease, the most destructive manifestations tend to arise from recurrent infection. These recurrent infections can wreck devastating effects and lead to irreversible vision loss accompanied by a decreased quality of life, increased healthcare usage, and signifi cant cost burden. Unfortunately, no method currently exists to eradicate herpesviruses from the body after infection. Treatment and management of herpes-related eye conditions continue to revolve around antiviral drugs, although corticosteroids, interferons, and other newer therapies may also be appropriate depending on the disease presentation. Ultimately, the advent of effective vaccines will be crucial to preventing herpesvirus diseases altogether and cutting the incidence of ocular complications.
    • 加载中

      1. Akhtar J, Shukla D. 2009. Viral entry mechanisms: cellular andviral mediators of herpes simplex virus entry. FEBS J, 276:7228-7236
          doi: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.07402.x

      2. Al-Dujaili L J, Clerkin P P, Clement C, McFerrin H E, Bhattacharjee P S, Varnell E D, Kaufman H E, Hill J M. 2011. Ocularherpes simplex virus: how are latency, reactivation, recurrentdisease and therapy interrelated? Future Microbiol, 6: 877-907.
          doi: 10.2217/fmb.11.73

      3. Anderson J R, Behrens C, Binswanger I A, and al. e 2013, postingdate. HIV Web Study. http://depts.washington.edu/hivaids/oit/case7/discussion.html.

      4. Arvin A M. 1996. Varicella-zoster virus. Clin Microbiol Rev, 9:361-381.

      5. Arvin A M. 2007. Human herpesviruses: biology, therapy, and immunoprophylaxis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; New York, pp. 1262-1273.

      6. Azwa A, Barton S E. 2009. Aspects of herpes simplex virus: aclinical review. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care, 35: 237-242.
          doi: 10.1783/147118909789587376

      7. Barron B A, Gee L, Hauck W W, Kurinij N, Dawson C R, Jones DB, Wilhelmus K R, Kaufman H E, Sugar J, Hyndiuk R A, Laibson P R, Stulting R D, Asbell P A. 1994. Herpetic Eye DiseaseStudy. A controlled trial of oral acyclovir for herpes simplexstromal keratitis. Ophthalmology, 101: 1871-1882.

      8. Belshe R B, Leone P A, Bernstein D I, Wald A, Levin M J, Stapleton J T, Gorfinkel I, Morrow R L, Ewell M G, Stokes-Riner A, Dubin G, Heineman T C, Schulte J M, Deal C D, Herpevac Trialfor Women. 2012. Efficacy results of a trial of a herpes simplexvaccine. N Engl J Med, 366: 34-43.
          doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1103151

      9. Bloom J N, Palestine A G. 1988. The diagnosis of cytomegalovirus retinitis. Ann Intern Med, 109: 963-969.
          doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-109-12-963

      10. Bowen E F, Griffiths P D, Davey C C, Emery V C, Johnson MA. 1996. Lessons from the natural history of cytomegalovirus.AIDS, 10 Suppl 1: S37-S41.

      11. Bradley H, Markowitz L E, Gibson T, McQuillan G M. 2014.Seroprevalence of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2--UnitedStates, 1999-2010. J Infect Dis, 209: 325-333.
          doi: 10.1093/infdis/jit458

      12. Buxbaum S, Geers M, Gross G, Schofer H, Rabenau H F, Doerr HW. 2003. Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2in Germany: what has changed? Med Microbiol Immunol, 192:177-181.
          doi: 10.1007/s00430-003-0183-0

      13. Caserta M T, Mock D J, Dewhurst S. 2001. Human herpesvirus 6.Clin Infect Dis, 33: 829-833.
          doi: 10.1086/cid.2001.33.issue-6

      14. Cobo L M, Foulks G N, Liesegang T, Lass J, Sutphin J E, Wilhelmus K, Jones D B, Chapman S, Segreti A C, King D H. 1986.Oral acyclovir in the treatment of acute herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology, 93: 763-770.
          doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(86)33678-9

      15. Coleman J L, Shukla D. 2013. Recent advances in vaccine development for herpes simplex virus types I and II. Hum VaccinImmunother, 9: 729-735.

      16. Colin J, Chastel C, Kaufman H E, Kissling G E. 1987. Combination therapy for dendritic keratitis with acyclovir and vidarabine.J Ocul Pharmacol, 3: 39-42.
          doi: 10.1089/jop.1987.3.39

      17. Daibata M, Komatsu T, Taguchi H. 2000. Human herpesviruses inprimary ocular lymphoma. Leuk Lymphoma, 37: 361-365.

      18. Damato E G, Winnen C W. 2002. Cytomegalovirus infection: perinatal implications. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs, 31: 86-92.
          doi: 10.1111/j.1552-6909.2002.tb00026.x

      19. Darougar S, Wishart M S, Viswalingam N D. 1985. Epidemiological and clinical features of primary herpes simplex virus ocularinfection. Br J Ophthalmol, 69: 2-6.
          doi: 10.1136/bjo.69.1.2

      20. Dartt D A, Dana R, D'Amore p, Niederkorn J. 2011. Immunology, Inflammation and Diseases of the Eye. San Diego: AcademicPress.

      21. Farhatullah S, Kaza S, Athmanathan S, Garg P, Reddy S B, Sharma S.2004. Diagnosis of herpes simplex virus-1 keratitis using Giemsa stain, immunofluorescence assay, and polymerase chain reaction assay on corneal scrapings. Br J Ophthalmol, 88: 142-144.
          doi: 10.1136/bjo.88.1.142

      22. Farooq A V, Shukla D. 2012. Herpes simplex epithelial and stromal keratitis: an epidemiologic update. Surv Ophthalmol, 57:448-462.
          doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2012.01.005

      23. Farooq A V, Shah A, Shukla D. 2010. The role of herpesviruses inocular infections. Virus Adaptation and Treatment, 2: 115-123.

      24. Fulop T, Larbi A, Pawelec G. 2013. Human T cell aging and theimpact of persistent viral infections. Front Immunol, 4: 271.

      25. Gershon A A, Gershon M D. 2010. Perspectives on vaccinesagainst varicella-zoster virus infections. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol, 342: 359-372.

      26. Gilden D H, Dueland A N, Devlin M E, Mahalingam R, Cohrs R.1992. Varicella-zoster virus reactivation without rash. J InfectDis, 166 Suppl 1: S30-S34.

      27. Gimenez F, Suryawanshi A, Rouse B T. 2013. Pathogenesis ofherpes stromal keratitis--a focus on corneal neovascularization.Prog Retin Eye Res, 33: 1-9.
          doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2012.07.002

      28. Green L K, Pavan-Langston D. 2006. Herpes simplex ocular inflammatory disease. Int Ophthalmol Clin, 46: 27-37.

      29. Gross G, Schofer H, Wassilew S, Friese K, Timm A, Guthoff R, Pau H W, Malin J P, Wutzler P, Doerr H W. 2003. Herpes zosterguideline of the German Dermatology Society (DDG). J ClinVirol, 26: 277-289.

      30. Guess S, Stone D U, Chodosh J. 2007. Evidence-based treatmentof herpes simplex virus keratitis: a systematic review. Ocul Surf, 5: 240-250.
          doi: 10.1016/S1542-0124(12)70614-6

      31. Hamrah P, Sahin A, Dastjerdi M H, Shahatit B M, Bayhan HA, Dana R, Pavan-Langston D. 2012. Cellular changes of thecorneal epithelium and stroma in herpes simplex keratitis: an in vivo confocal microscopy study. Ophthalmology, 119: 1791-1797.
          doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.03.005

      32. Hennis H L, Scott A A, Apple D J. 1989. Cytomegalovirus retinitis. Surv Ophthalmol, 34: 193-203.
          doi: 10.1016/0039-6257(89)90103-3

      33. Hori J. 2008. Mechanisms of immune privilege in the anterior segment of the eye: what we learn from corneal transplantation. JOcul Biol Dis Infor, 1: 94-100.
          doi: 10.1007/s12177-008-9010-6

      34. Hung S O, Patterson A, Rees P J. 1984. Pharmacokinetics of oralacyclovir (Zovirax) in the eye. Br J Ophthalmol, 68: 192-195.
          doi: 10.1136/bjo.68.3.192

      35. Hwang C W, Jr., Steigleman W A, Saucedo-Sanchez E, Tuli S S.2013. Reactivation of herpes zoster keratitis in an adult aftervaricella zoster vaccination. Cornea, 32: 508-509.
          doi: 10.1097/ICO.0b013e318277acae

      36. Kahloun R, Attia S, Jelliti B, Attia A Z, Khochtali S, Yahia S B, Zaouali S, Khairallah M. 2014. Ocular involvement and visualoutcome of herpes zoster ophthalmicus: review of 45 patientsfrom Tunisia, North Africa. J Ophthalmic Inflamm Infect, 4: 25.
          doi: 10.1186/s12348-014-0025-9

      37. Karsten E, Watson S L, Foster L J. 2012. Diversity of microbialspecies implicated in keratitis: a review. Open Ophthalmol J, 6:110-124.
          doi: 10.2174/1874364101206010110

      38. Kaufman H E. 1962. Clinical cure of herpes simplex keratitis by5-iodo-2-deoxyuridine. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 109: 251-252.
          doi: 10.3181/00379727-109-27169

      39. Keating G M. 2013. Shingles (herpes zoster) vaccine (zostavax(®)): a review of its use in the prevention of herpes zosterand postherpetic neuralgia in adults aged ≥50 years. Drugs, 73:1227-1244.
          doi: 10.1007/s40265-013-0088-1

      40. Kim S R, Khan F, Ramirez-Fort M K, Downing C, Tyring S K.2014. Varicella zoster: an update on current treatment optionsand future perspectives. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 15: 61-71.
          doi: 10.1517/14656566.2014.860443

      41. Knickelbein J E, Hendricks R L, Charukamnoetkanok P. 2009.Management of herpes simplex virus stromal keratitis: an evidence-based review. Surv Ophthalmol, 54: 226-234.
          doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2008.12.004

      42. Kwong A D, Frenkel N. 1987. Herpes simplex virus-infected cellscontain a function(s) that destabilizes both host and viral mRNAs. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 84: 1926-1930.
          doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.7.1926

      43. Labetoulle M, Auquier P, Conrad H, Crochard A, Daniloski M, Bouee S, El Hasnaoui A, Colin J. 2005. Incidence of herpessimplex virus keratitis in France. Ophthalmology, 112: 888-895.
          doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2004.11.052

      44. Lairson D R, Begley C E, Reynolds T F, Wilhelmus K R. 2003.Prevention of herpes simplex virus eye disease: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Arch Ophthalmol, 121: 108-112.
          doi: 10.1001/archopht.121.1.108

      45. Liesegang T J. 1992. Biology and molecular aspects of herpessimplex and varicella-zoster virus infections. Ophthalmology, 99: 781-799.
          doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(92)31921-9

      46. Liesegang T J. 2008. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus natural history, risk factors, clinical presentation, and morbidity. Ophthalmology, 115: S3-S12.
          doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2007.10.009

      47. Liesegang T J, Melton L J, 3rd, Daly P J, Ilstrup D M. 1989. Epidemiology of ocular herpes simplex. Incidence in Rochester, Minn, 1950 through 1982. Arch Ophthalmol, 107: 1155-1159.

      48. Liu S, Pavan-Langston D, Colby K A. 2012. Pediatric herpes simplex of the anterior segment: characteristics, treatment, andoutcomes. Ophthalmology, 119: 2003-2008.
          doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.05.008

      49. Matoba A Y. 1990. Ocular disease associated with Epstein-Barrvirus infection. Surv Ophthalmol, 35: 145-150.
          doi: 10.1016/0039-6257(90)90069-8

      50. Matsuo T, Itami M. 2002. Seropositivity of human herpesvirus-8in patients with uveitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm, 10: 197-199.
          doi: 10.1076/ocii.10.3.197.15602

      51. Mechai F, Boutolleau D, Manceron V, Gasnault J, Quertainmont Y, Brosseau J P, Delfraissy J F, Labetoulle M, and Goujard C.2007. Human herpesvirus 6-associated retrobulbar optic neuritisin an HIV-infected patient: response to anti-herpesvirus therapyand long-term outcome. J Med Virol, 79: 931-934.
          doi: 10.1002/(ISSN)1096-9071

      52. Murray P R, Rosenthal K S, Pfaller M A. 2005. Human Herpesviruses Medical microbiology, 5th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Mosby, pp. 461-484.

      53. Musch D C, Martin D F, Gordon J F, Davis M D, KuppermannB D. 1997. Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis with a sustained-release ganciclovir implant. The Ganciclovir ImplantStudy Group. N Engl J Med, 337: 83-90.

      54. Newman H, Gooding C. 2013. Viral ocular manifestations: a broadoverview. Rev Med Virol, 23: 281-294.
          doi: 10.1002/rmv.v23.5

      55. Nguyen L H, Knipe D M, Finberg R W. 1992. Replication-defective mutants of herpes simplex virus (HSV) induce cellularimmunity and protect against lethal HSV infection. J Virol, 66:7067-7072.

      56. Nguyen Q D, Kempen J H, Bolton S G, Dunn J P, Jabs D A. 2000.Immune recovery uveitis in patients with AIDS and cytomegalovirus retinitis after highly active antiretroviral therapy. Am JOphthalmol, 129: 634-639.
          doi: 10.1016/S0002-9394(00)00356-1

      57. Nilsen A, Myrmel H. 2000. Changing trends in genital herpes simplex virus infection in Bergen, Norway. Acta Obstet GynecolScand, 79: 693-696.

      58. Ogata N, Koike N, Yoshikawa T, Takahashi K. 2011. Human herpesvirus 6-associated uveitis with optic neuritis diagnosed bymultiplex PCR. Jpn J Ophthalmol, 55: 502-505.
          doi: 10.1007/s10384-011-0069-4

      59. Ohara P T, Chin M S, LaVail J H. 2000. The spread of herpes simplex virus type 1 from trigeminal neurons to the murine cornea:an immunoelectron microscopy study. J Virol, 74: 4776-4786.
          doi: 10.1128/JVI.74.10.4776-4786.2000

      60. Opstelten W, Zaal M J. 2005. Managing ophthalmic herpes zosterin primary care. BMJ, 331: 147-151.
          doi: 10.1136/bmj.331.7509.147

      61. Oxman M N, Levin M J, Johnson G R, Schmader K E, Straus SE, Gelb L D, Arbeit R D, Simberkoff M S, Gershon A A, DavisL E, Weinberg A, Boardman K D, Williams H M, Zhang J H, Peduzzi P N, Beisel C E, Morrison V A, Guatelli J C, Brooks PA, Kauffman C A, Pachucki C T, Neuzil K M, Betts R F, WrightP F, Griffin M R, Brunell P, Soto N E, Marques A R, Keay S K, Goodman R P, Cotton D J, Gnann J W, Jr., Loutit J, Holodniy M, Keitel W A, Crawford G E, Yeh S S, Lobo Z, Toney J F, Greenberg R N, Keller P M, Harbecke R, Hayward A R, Irwin M R, Kyriakides T C, Chan C Y, Chan I S, Wang W W, Annunziato PW, Silber J L, Shingles Prevention Study G. 2005. A vaccine toprevent herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia in older adults.N Engl J Med, 352: 2271-2284.
          doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa051016

      62. Palestine A G. 1988. Clinical aspects of cytomegalovirus retinitis.Rev Infect Dis, 10 Suppl 3: S515-S521.

      63. Papaloukas O, Giannouli G, Papaevangelou V. 2014. Successes andchallenges in varicella vaccine. Ther Adv Vaccines, 2: 39-55.
          doi: 10.1177/2051013613515621

      64. Pepose J S, Keadle T L, Morrison L A. 2006. Ocular herpes simplex: changing epidemiology, emerging disease patterns, and thepotential of vaccine prevention and therapy. Am J Ophthalmol, 141: 547-557.
          doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2005.10.008

      65. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2012. Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. Atkinson W, Wolfe S, Hamborsky J, eds. 12th ed. , second printing. Washington DC: Public Health Foundation, pp301-324.

      66. Prober C G, Kirk L E, Keeney R E. 1982. Acyclovir therapy of chickenpox in immunosuppressed children--a collaborativestudy. J Pediatr, 101: 622-625.
          doi: 10.1016/S0022-3476(82)80725-7

      67. Rabenau H F, Buxbaum S, Preiser W, Weber B, Doerr H W. 2002.Seroprevalence of herpes simplex virus types 1 and type 2 in theFrankfurt am Main area, Germany. Med Microbiol Immunol, 190: 153-160.
          doi: 10.1007/s00430-001-0102-1

      68. Revere K, Davidson S L. 2013. Update on management of herpeskeratitis in children. Curr Opin Ophthalmol, 24: 343-347.
          doi: 10.1097/ICU.0b013e32836227d8

      69. Rocha G, Muzychuk M. 2010. Herpes Zoster Ophthalmicus: Morethan meets the eye. Clinical & Surgical Ophthalmology, 28:11-16.

      70. Rowe A M, St Leger A J, Jeon S, Dhaliwal D K, Knickelbein J E, Hendricks R L. 2013. Herpes keratitis. Prog Retin Eye Res, 32:88-101.
          doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2012.08.002

      71. Roy F H, Fraunfelder F W, Fraunfelder F T. 2008. Roy andFraunfelder's Current Ocular Therapy. Elsevier Saunders.

      72. Sacchetti M, Lambiase A. 2014. Diagnosis and management ofneurotrophic keratitis. Clin Ophthalmol, 8: 571-579.

      73. Schmader K, Gnann J W, Jr. , Watson C P. 2008. The epidemiological, clinical, and pathological rationale for the herpes zostervaccine. J Infect Dis, 197 Suppl 2: S207-S215.

      74. Schreiber A, Harter G, Schubert A, Bunjes D, Mertens T, Michel D. 2009. Antiviral treatment of cytomegalovirus infection andresistant strains. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 10: 191-209.
          doi: 10.1517/14656560802678138

      75. Scoular A, Norrie J, Gillespie G, Mir N, Carman W F. 2002. Longitudinal study of genital infection by herpes simplex virus type1 in Western Scotland over 15 years. BMJ, 324: 1366-1367.
          doi: 10.1136/bmj.324.7350.1366

      76. Shaikh S, Ta C N. 2002. Evaluation and management of herpeszoster ophthalmicus. Am Fam Physician, 66: 1723-1730.

      77. Simberkoff M S, Arbeit R D, Johnson G R, Oxman M N, Boardman K D, Williams H M, Levin M J, Schmader K E, Gelb LD, Keay S, Neuzil K, Greenberg R N, Griffin M R, Davis L E, Morrison V A, Annunziato P W, Shingles Prevention Study G.2010. Safety of herpes zoster vaccine in the shingles preventionstudy: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med, 152: 545-554.
          doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-152-9-201005040-00004

      78. Slobod K S, Sandlund J T, Spiegel P H, Haik B, Hurwitz J L, Conley M E, Bowman L C, Benaim E, Jenkins J J, Stocks R M, GanY, Sixbey J W. 2000. Molecular evidence of ocular Epstein-Barrvirus infection. Clin Infect Dis, 31: 184-188.
          doi: 10.1086/313932

      79. Smith J S, Robinson N J. 2002. Age-specific prevalence of infection with herpes simplex virus types 2 and 1: a global review. JInfect Dis, 186 Suppl 1: S3-S28.

      80. Stanberry L R, Spruance S L, Cunningham A L, Bernstein D I, Mindel A, Sacks S, Tyring S, Aoki F Y, Slaoui M, Denis M, Vandepapeliere P, Dubin G, GlaxoSmithKline Herpes VaccineEfficacy Study G. 2002. Glycoprotein-D-adjuvant vaccine toprevent genital herpes. N Engl J Med, 347: 1652-1661.

      81. Stein-Streilein J. 2008. Immune regulation and the eye. Trends Immunol, 29: 548-554.
          doi: 10.1016/j.it.2008.08.002

      82. Steiner I, Kennedy P G, Pachner A R. 2007. The neurotropic herpes viruses: herpes simplex and varicella-zoster. Lancet Neurol, 6: 1015-1028.
          doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(07)70267-3

      83. Stewart M W. 2010. Optimal management of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Clin Ophthalmol, 4: 285-299.

      84. Sundmacher R. 2009. Color atlas of herpetic eye disease: a practical guide to clinical management. Berlin: Springer, pp. 51-56.

      85. Sung H, Schleiss M R. 2010. Update on the current status of cytomegalovirus vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines, 9: 1303-1314.
          doi: 10.1586/erv.10.125

      86. Suzuki T, Ohashi Y. 2008. Corneal endotheliitis. Semin Ophthalmol, 23: 235-240.
          doi: 10.1080/08820530802111010

      87. Tappuni A R. 2011. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. Adv Dent Res, 23: 90-96.
          doi: 10.1177/0022034511399915

      88. Tasman W, Jaeger E A. 2013. Duane's ophthalmology on DVDROM-2013 edition. http://80.36.73.149/almacen/medicina/oftalmologia/enciclopedias/duane/pages/v3c028a.html.

      89. Toma H S, Murina A T, Areaux R G, Jr., Neumann D M, Bhattacharjee P S, Foster T P, Kaufman H E, Hill J M. 2008. OcularHSV-1 latency, reactivation and recurrent disease. Semin Ophthalmol, 23: 249-273.
          doi: 10.1080/08820530802111085

      90. Tran T, Druce J D, Catton M C, Kelly H, Birch C J. 2004. Changing epidemiology of genital herpes simplex virus infection inMelbourne, Australia, between 1980 and 2003. Sex Transm Infect, 80: 277-279.
          doi: 10.1136/sti.2004.009753

      91. Tyring S K. 2006. Mucosal immunology and virology. Springer, London, pp. 179-189.

      92. Tyring S K. 2007. Management of herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia. J Am Acad Dermatol, 57: S136-S142.
          doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2007.09.016

      93. Varani S, Landini M P. 2011. Cytomegalovirus-induced immunopathology and its clinical consequences. Herpesviridae, 2: 6.
          doi: 10.1186/2042-4280-2-6

      94. Varani S, Spezzacatena P, Manfredi R, Chiodo F, Mastroianni A, Ballarini P, Boschini A, Lazzarotto T, Landini M P. 2000. Theincidence of cytomegalovirus (CMV) antigenemia and CMVdisease is reduced by highly active antiretroviral therapy. Eur JEpidemiol, 16: 433-437.
          doi: 10.1023/A:1007619323939

      95. Weinberg A, Zhang J H, Oxman M N, Johnson G R, HaywardA R, Caulfield M J, Irwin M R, Clair J, Smith J G, Stanley H, Marchese R D, Harbecke R, Williams H M, Chan I S, Arbeit R D, Gershon A A, Schodel F, Morrison V A, Kauffman C A, StrausS E, Schmader K E, Davis L E, Levin M J, US Department ofVeterans Affairs (VA) Cooperative Studies Program ShinglesPrevention Study Investigators. 2009. Varicella-zoster virus-specific immune responses to herpes zoster in elderly participants ina trial of a clinically effective zoster vaccine. J Infect Dis, 200: 1068-1077.

      96. Wenkel H, Rummelt V, Fleckenstein B, Naumann G O. 1998. Detection of varicella zoster virus DNA and viral antigen in humaneyes after herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology, 105:1323-1330.
          doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(98)97042-7

      97. Whitcup S M. 2000. Cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highlyactive antiretroviral therapy. JAMA, 283: 653-657.
          doi: 10.1001/jama.283.5.653

      98. Wilhelmus K R. 2010. Antiviral treatment and other therapeutic interventions for herpes simplex virus epithelial keratitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 12: CD002898.

      99. Wilhelmus K R, Falcon M G, Jones B R. 1981. Bilateral herpetickeratitis. Br J Ophthalmol, 65: 385-387.
          doi: 10.1136/bjo.65.6.385

      100. Wong R W, Jumper J M, McDonald H R, Johnson R N, Fu A, Lujan B J, Cunningham E T Jr. 2013. Emerging concepts inthe management of acute retinal necrosis. Br J Ophthalmol, 97:545-552.
          doi: 10.1136/bjophthalmol-2012-301983

      101. Xu F, Sternberg M R, Kottiri B J, McQuillan G M, Lee F K, Nahmias A J, Berman S M, Markowitz L E. 2006. Trends in herpessimplex virus type 1 and type 2 seroprevalence in the UnitedStates. JAMA, 296: 964-973.
          doi: 10.1001/jama.296.8.964

      102. Yawn B P, Wollan P C, St Sauver J L, Butterfield L C. 2013. Herpes zoster eye complications: rates and trends. Mayo Clin Proc, 88: 562-570.
          doi: 10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.03.014

      103. Yen M, Ausayakhun S, Chen J, Ausayakhun S, Jirawison C, Heiden D, Holland G N, Margolis T P, Keenan J D. 2014. Telemedicine diagnosis of cytomegalovirus retinitis by nonophthalmologists. JAMA Ophthalmol, 132: 1052-1058.
          doi: 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2014.1108

    • 加载中

    Figures(5) / Tables(4)

    PDF

    Article Metrics

    Article views(8797) PDF downloads(35) Cited by()

    Related
    Proportional views

      Ocular herpes: the pathophysiology, management and treatment of herpetic eye diseases

        Corresponding author: Hua Zhu, zhuhu@njms.rutgers.edu
      • Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry & Molecular Genetics Rutgers, Rutgers -New Jersey Medical School, New Jersey 07103, USA
      • Received Date: 06 November 2014
      • Accepted Date: 13 November 2014
      • Published Date: 15 December 2014

      Abstract: Herpesviruses are a prominent cause of human viral disease, second only to the cold and influenza viruses. Most herpesvirus infections are mild or asymptomatic. However, when the virus invades the eye, a number of pathologies can develop and its associated sequelae have become a considerable source of ocular morbidity. The most common culprits of herpetic eye disease are the herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella zoster virus (VZV), and cytomegalovirus (CMV). While primary infection can produce ocular disease, the most destructive manifestations tend to arise from recurrent infection. These recurrent infections can wreck devastating effects and lead to irreversible vision loss accompanied by a decreased quality of life, increased healthcare usage, and signifi cant cost burden. Unfortunately, no method currently exists to eradicate herpesviruses from the body after infection. Treatment and management of herpes-related eye conditions continue to revolve around antiviral drugs, although corticosteroids, interferons, and other newer therapies may also be appropriate depending on the disease presentation. Ultimately, the advent of effective vaccines will be crucial to preventing herpesvirus diseases altogether and cutting the incidence of ocular complications.

        HTML

      INTRODUCTION