Figure 6个  Table 5个
    • Country Outbreak Year Source Positive rate (%)a Genotype References
      Japan 1 1987 Oysters 55.0 A Yamashita et al. (2000)
      2 1988 Oysters 71.4 A
      3 Oysters 81.8 A
      4 1989 Oysters 80.9 A
      5 School meal 64.3 A
      6 1990 Oysters 50.0 B
      7 Oysters 54.5 A
      8 1991 Oysters 50.0 A
      9 1994 Oysters 14.3 A
      10 1997 Oysters 62.5 A
      11 1998 Oysters 50.0 A
      12 Oysters 33.0 A
      Germany 1 2006 NSb NS A Oh et al. (2006)
      France 1 2006 Oysters 50.0 A Ambert-Balay et al. (2008)
      2 2006 Oysters 50.0 A
      3 Oysters 17.0 A
      4 2007 Oysters 100.0 A
      5 Oysters 33.0 A
      6 2007 Seafoodc 6.0 A
      aNumbers of fecal specimens positive/Numbers tested.
      bNS, not specified.
      cShellfish species not specified.

      Table 1.  Features of the gastroenteritis outbreaks linked to AiV.

    • Laboratory diagnostic method Advantages Disadvantages
      Electron microscopy Visualization of viral particles Labour and tedious. Useless for environmental samples
      Cell culture Variety of sensitive cell lines. Determination of infectivity. Quantitative (TCID50) Labour and tedious. Effect of inhibitors/contaminants
      ELISAa Sensitivity. Especificity Effect of inhibitors. Limited use for environmental samples
      LAMPb Sensitivity. Especificity. Rapidity. Isothermal conditions Detection of infective and non-infective particles. Effect of inhibitors
      RT-PCRc Sensitivity. Especificity. Rapidity Detection of infective and non-infective particles. Effect of inhibitors
      RT-nested PCR Sensitivity. Especificity. Valid for genotyping coupled with sequencing Detection of infective and non-infective particles. Effect of inhibitors
      RT-qPCRd Sensitivity. Especificity. Rapidity. Quantification Detection of infective and non-infective particles. Need of standard for quantification. Expensive
      Digital RT-PCR Sensitivity. Especificity. Rapidity. Absolute quantification Detection of infective and non-infective particles. Hard optimization. Expensive
      Pyrosequencing Sensitivity. Universal detection Complex sample processing and bioinformatic analysis. Expensive
      aELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.
      bLAMP, loop-mediated isothermal amplification.
      cRT-PCR, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction.
      dRT-qPCR, real time quantitative RT-PCR.

      Table 2.  Laboratory diagnostic methods for AiV.

    • Countrya Positive Samples Sample type Genotype Copies/L References
      South Africa 10/12 Raw sewage NS NSb Onosi et al. (2019)
      Tunisia 10/125 Raw sewage A NS Sdiri-Loulizi et al. (2010)
      4/125 Treated sewage A NS
      51/102 Raw sewage B NS Ibrahim et al. (2017)
      US 24/24 Raw sewage A, B 1.2×104–4.0×106 Kitajima et al.(2014, 2018)
      24/24 Treated sewage A, B 2.0×103–4.0×105
      1/1 Raw sewage NS NS Cantalupo et al. (2011)
      Iran 7/10 Raw sewage NS 2.1×104–1.9×106 Azhdar et al. (2019)
      7/12 Treated sewage NS 4.2×103–6.7×105
      Japan 137/207 Raw sewage A NS Yamashita et al. (2014)
      12/12 Raw sewage A, B NS Kitajima et al. (2011)
      11/12 Treated sewage A NS
      12/12 Raw sewage A 1.4×105–2.2×107 Kitajima et al. (2013)
      11/12 Treated sewage A Up to 1.8×104
      11/12 Raw sewage NS NS Thongprachum et al. (2018)
      Nepal 1/1 Raw sewage NS NS Ng et al. (2012)
      1/1 Raw sewage B NS Haramoto and Kitajima (2017)
      Thailand 1/1 Raw sewage NS NS Ng et al. (2012)
      France 61/100 Treated sewage NS Up to 103 Prevost et al. (2015)
      Italy 6/48 Raw sewage B NS Di Martino et al. (2013)
      Netherlands 16/16 Raw sewage A, B NS Lodder et al. (2013)
      Spain 1/1 Raw sewage NS NS Cantalupo et al. (2011)
      aCountries were ordered by continent and alphabetically within each continent.
      bNS, not specified.

      Table 3.  Worldwide detection of AiV in wastewater.

    • Countrya Positive Samples Sample type Genotype Copies/L References
      US 1/2 Reclaimed water NSb NS Rosario et al. (2009)
      7/12 Ground waterb NS 1.0×102–1.5×104 Betancourt et al. (2014)
      Venezuela 5/11 River water B NS Alcalá et al. (2010)
      Iran 15/28 River water NS 3.4×102–5.9×106 Azhdar et al. (2019)
      Japan 36/60 River water A + B NS Kitajima et al. (2011)
      29/29 River water NS 8.6×102–2.0×104 Hata et al. (2014)
      20/52 Surface water NS Up to 104 Hata et al. (2018)
      Nepal 14/14 River water B 1.2×106–8.3×108 Haramoto and Kitajima (2017)
      11/37 Ground water B 5.6×104–2.0×106
      1/1 Tap water B 109
      France 20/175 River water NS Up to 102 Prevost et al. (2015)
      Netherlands 12/14 River water A + B NS Lodder et al. (2013)
      aCountries were ordered by continent and alphabetically within each continent.
      bNS, not specified.

      Table 4.  Worldwide detection of AiV in river, surface and ground waters.

    • Countrya Positive Samples Sample type Genotype Copies/L Reference
      South Africa 8/12 Mussels NSb NS Onosi et al. (2019)
      Tunisia 4/60 Shellfish (NS) A NS Sdiri-Loulizi et al. (2010)
      Japan 19/26 Clams A NS Hansman et al. (2008)
      France 6/66 Oysters NS NS Le Guyader et al. (2008)
      Italy 13/108 Mussels NS Up to 102 Fusco et al. (2017)
      3/170 Mussels, Oysters, Clams A, B NS Terio et al. (2018)
      Spain 15/249 Mussels, Clams, Cockles NS NQc— 6.9×103 Rivadulla et al. (2017)
      aCountries were ordered by continent and alphabetically within each continent.
      bNS, not specified.
      cNQ, non quantifiable (under the limit of quantification of the method).

      Table 5.  Worldwide detection of AiV in shellfish.